For over thirty years, aircraft cockpits have been highly automated and progressively digitalized to the point where they are now referred to as “interactive cockpits,” not because pilots interact directly with the mechanical part of the aircraft as was previously the case, but because they use a pointing device to interact with computer screens. More generally, computers invaded the airspace, ranging from onboard aircraft to air traffic control (ATC) ground services. In terms of workflow, eliminating the flight engineer onboard commercial aircraft cockpits drastically transformed how pilots fly—this was done at the beginning of the 1980s. The pilot’s activity shifted from manual control to cognitive management of embedded systems (performing some of the tasks the flight engineer used to do). Aircraft automation considerably improved commercial aviation safety. Today, the main issues come from the exponential increase in aircraft in the sky. Air traffic complexity imposes drastic reengineering of air traffic workflow. ATC is shifting towards air traffic management (ATM). It is the same thing: moving from control to management, expanding the cockpit’s single-agent problems and solutions to air traffic multi-agent problems and solutions. The main emphasis is, therefore, social cognition. During the twentieth century, we automated physical systems—we now talk about cyber-physical systems (i.e., we have moved on from hardware-based mechanical engineering issues to software-induced cognitive problems). Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, almost all systems have been imagined and designed as software before being transformed into tangible things. Consequently, the workflow can be modeled and simulated very early during the design process, and, unlike during the twentieth century, functions and activities can be tested with humans in the loop before anything is physically built. This provides excellent possibilities that should be operationalized and implemented. This chapter will show that the main issue has become tangibility instead of automation. At the same time, these new possibilities provided by our emerging digital world enable a brand-new move towards more autonomous systems that must be coordinated. We will illustrate this shift from automation towards autonomy by providing salient examples and generic patterns of this workflow evolution in the aviation domain.


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